Papers
Peer-reviewed scientific articles and book chapters
Artisanal and small-scale mining, and COVID-19 in sub-Saharan Africa: A preliminary analysis
World Development (2021)
This article offers preliminary reflections on the potential impact of COVID-19 on artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activities – low-tech, labor-intensive mineral extraction and processing – in sub-Saharan Africa. In doing so, it revisits the core ideas put forward in the literature in support of showcasing the sector more prominently in the region’s rural development strategies. For decades, scholars have been gathering evidence that points to ASM being the most important rural nonfarm activity in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as how, in providing a supplementary source of income, the sector helps millions of the region’s impoverished farm-dependent families cope with unexpected economic stresses and shocks. Sub-Saharan Africa has managed to avoid high numbers of COVID-19 infections and deaths thus far but it has already felt the economic impacts of the pandemic, perhaps nowhere more than in its remote rural areas, which are already poverty-stricken and produce food at mostly subsistence levels. Intensifying support for ASM, an economic activity which again, many rural Africans are already involved in and familiar with the benefits it provides, in rural development and adaptation plans linked to COVID-19, should be prioritized by the region’s governments and donors. Findings from ongoing research in Mali, Liberia and Ghana – the locations of three of the largest and most dynamic ASM economies in sub-Saharan Africa – reveal that despite its proven ability to stabilize and catalyze development in the region’s rural economies, that even this sector has been affected by COVID-19. They more importantly shed light on how the pandemic has impacted ASM-dependent communities, and importantly, offer clues on how to make the sector more robust and better position it to steer rural communities through the crisis.
From boom to bust, and back again: the Tortiya diamond fields of Côte d’Ivoire, 1947–2018
Canadian Journal of Development Studies / Revue canadienne d'études du développement (2020)
Implementation of the African Mining Vision in Côte d’Ivoire is weak, and AMV domestication is unlikely to happen soon. Focusing on the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector, a key section of the AMV, we look at the tumultuous recent history of the diamond mining town Tortiya. The subject of a halting and uneven formalisation process, the case is emblematic for the lack of interest shown in ASM at a policy level. This is due to high costs, and low political and economic returns of formalisation. It underscores a broader lack of strategic vision for the mining sector.
LAND GRABBING “FROM BELOW”? ILLICIT ARTISANAL GOLD MINING AND ACCESS TO LAND IN POST-CONFLICT CÔTE D’IVOIRE
Land Use Policy (2019), Volume 81, February 2019, Pages 904-914
The illicit artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) of gold (“orpaillage”) in Côte d'Ivoire/Ivory Coast is considered an “epidemic” by the Ivoirian government, which sees it as harming the country’s efforts to attract large-scale mining investment. Rural ‘traditional’ communities are often portrayed as helpless victims of the ‘greed’ of artisanal miners, who come from all over the West African subregion, and whose actions destroy valuable farmland. In analysing this issue as “land grabbing from below”, this article emphasises the agency of local landowning communities in their interactions with artisanal miners, thereby de-obscuring the negotiated nature of artisanal mining. Often, mutually beneficial agreements are concluded, in which local government officials often play a brokerage role. We find that the variation in compensation and levels of local control over mining activities are strongly linked to the strength of neo-customary land ownership structures and the respect they can command from strangers, as well as whether or not the artisanal miners are acting on behalf of, or are supported by, powerful political and security interests.
THE EMERGENCE OF CONFLICT-FREE, ETHICAL, AND FAIR TRADE MINERAL SUPPLY CHAIN CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
The Extractive Industries and Society (2018), Volume 5, Issue 1, January 2018, Pages 52-55
This introduction briefly examines the emerging field of ‘conflict-free’, ‘fair’, and ‘transparently sourced and traded’ minerals and the dynamics of their supply chains. Linking the growing prevalence of Corporate Social Responsibility norms in the global mining industry with increasing awareness of reputational risks associated with mineral extraction and trading that are associated with environmental impacts and armed conflict, the paper provides an overview of the Kimberley Process for rough diamonds and the various supply chain initiatives that it has inspired over the past 15 years. It distinguishes between conflict-free supply chains; efforts to embrace Fair Trade in artisanal mineral supply chains; and a third group of independently-organized interventions that lay claim to ‘ethical’ or ‘fair’ labels for often very specific instances. Finally, it provides a brief overview of the papers included in the Special Section.
Min(d)ing the land: The relationship between artisanal and small-scale mining and surface land arrangements in the southern Philippines, eastern DRC and Liberia
With Boris Verbrugge and Jeroen Cuvelier
Journal of Rural Studies (2015), 37(C), pp.50–60.
This article examines the relationship between artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) and surface land tenure arrangements, through a comparison of mining areas in the southern Philippines, the eastern DRC and Liberia. In all three cases, ASM takes place in peripheral regions outside central state control, where both land- and mineral tenure are characterized by high degrees of informality. Based on our comparative analysis, we highlight three core propositions. First, the relationship between ASM and surface land claimants is not (merely) characterized by antagonism, but involves a significant degree of negotiation and mutual benefit-sharing. Secondly, even in places purportedly characterized by a weak state presence, people make constant references to state-sanctioned legality to underpin their (often overlapping) claims to mineral resource wealth; whether as miner or as a surface landowner claiming royalties. Thirdly, people's ability to effectively use state-sanctioned legality as a mechanism to access mineral wealth -and to exclude others from accessing this wealth-is not distributed equally, and hinges on access to vital financial and political resources.
The persistence of informality: Perspectives on the future of artisanal mining in Liberia
Futures (2014), 62, pp.10–20.
Throughout most of the developing world, the artisanal and small-scale exploitation of high-value resources such as gold and diamonds, often takes place informally, without the proper legal authorization. Government officials often blame this informality on miners’ unwillingness to comply with legal requirements. However, the lack of government capacity to adequately enforce such legislation, and the question of whether or not that legislation is actually feasible, is rarely considered to be a relevant factor determining the level of informality of artisanal mining operations. Drawing on field research in Liberia, this paper argues that many artisanal miners are in fact operating at various stages of legality, through payment of informal taxes, and following informal agreements made with local government officials. This kind of informal taxation can be seen as a locally grounded formalization, benefiting both cash-strapped artisanal miners who are unable to pay the full fees required by the Mining Code, and underpaid government officials who are presented with an opportunity to supplement their incomes. While illegal in absolute terms, these practices raise important questions regarding the feasibility and legitimacy of the current Mining Code, and the ways in which this crucial economic activity should be regulated in the future.
Poverty and Livelihood Diversification in Rural Liberia: Exploring the Linkages between Artisanal Diamond Mining and Smallholder Rice Production
With Gavin Hilson
Journal of Development Studies (2012), 48(3), pp.413–428.
This article provides an account of the changing livelihood dynamics unfolding in diamond-rich territories of rural Liberia. In these areas, many farm families are using the rice harvested on their plots to attract and feed labourers recruited specifically to mine for diamonds. The monies accrued from the sales of all recovered stones are divided evenly between the family and hired hands, an arrangement which, for thousands of people, has proved to be an effective short-term buffer against poverty. A deepened knowledge of these dynamics could be an important step towards facilitating lasting development in Liberia's highly-impoverished rural areas
‘Grow what you eat, eat what you grow: poverty and livelihood diversification in rural Liberia’.
With Gavin Hilson
In: Van Bockstael, S. & Vlassenroot, K. (eds.) 2012. Diamonds, Rice, and a ‘Maggi Cube’. Artisanal diamond mining and livelihoods in Liberia. Ghent, Academia Press.
Book chapter in an edited book produced as part of the Egmont Institute’s (Belgium’s Royal Institute for International Relations) Artisanal Diamond Mining Programme.
Diamond, Rice, and a “Maggi Cube” represents the conclusions of the second phase of the Egmont Artisanal Diamond Mining Project, which ran from 2009 until mid-2011 and was funded by the Belgian government. This book pays particular attention to those communities for whom artisanal diamond mining often represents the most important of limited opportunities available to earn small amounts of cash income, whether on a full-time basis or in concurrence with traditional agricultural or other livelihoods.
‘Diamond mining, smallholder production and a ‘Maggi Cube’: deconstructing the poverty trap in rural Liberia.
With Gavin Hilson
In: Van Bockstael, S. & Vlassenroot, K. (eds.), 2011. Diamonds, Rice, and a ‘Maggi Cube’. Artisanal diamond mining and livelihoods in Liberia. Academia Press
Book chapter in an edited book produced as part of the Egmont Institute’s (Belgium’s Royal Institute for International Relations) Artisanal Diamond Mining Programme.
Diamond, Rice, and a “Maggi Cube” represents the conclusions of the second phase of the Egmont Artisanal Diamond Mining Project, which ran from 2009 until mid-2011 and was funded by the Belgian government. This book pays particular attention to those communities for whom artisanal diamond mining often represents the most important of limited opportunities available to earn small amounts of cash income, whether on a full-time basis or in concurrence with traditional agricultural or other livelihoods.
Diamond mining, rice farming and a “Maggi Cube”: a viable survival strategy in rural Liberia?
With Gavin Hilson
Journal of International Development (2011), 23(8), pp.1042–1053.
Since the conclusion of its 14‐year civil war in 2003, Liberia has struggled economically. Jobs are in short supply and operational infrastructural services, such as electricity and running water, are virtually nonexistent. The situation has proved especially challenging for the scores of people who fled the country in the 1990s to escape the violence and who have since returned to re‐enter their lives. With few economic prospects on hand, many have elected to enter the artisanal diamond mining sector, which has earned notoriety for perpetuating the country's civil war. This article critically reflects on the fate of these Liberians, many of whom, because of a lack of government support, finances, manpower and technological resources, have forged deals with hired labourers to work artisanal diamond fields. Specifically, in exchange for meals containing locally grown rice and a Maggi (soup) cube, hired hands mine diamondiferous territories, splitting the revenues accrued from the sales of recovered stones amongst themselves and the individual ‘claimholder’ who hired them. Although this cycle—referred to here as ‘diamond mining, rice farming and a Maggi cube’—helps to buffer against poverty, few of the parties involved will ever progress beyond a subsistence level.
Other publications/reports
REPORT: Regional Workshop on Best Practices for the Sustainable Development of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining.
Principal rapporteur, with Titus Sauerwein (2017).
Report of the Regional Workshop on Best Practices for the Sustainable Development of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. Held from 2-3 March 2017, Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire). Organised by the Ministry of Industry and Mines of Côte d'Ivoire, with the support of OECD, GIZ, USAID, the UK Embassy in Côte d'Ivoire, and the European Union.
Analyzing the Impact of the Dodd-Frank Act on Congolese Livelihoods
With Jeroen Cuvelier, Koen Vlassenroot, and Claude Iguma
SSRC Conflict Prevention and Peace Forum, 2014.
This paper presents a detailed study of how the Dodd-Frank Act in particular has affected several mining communities in eastern Congo, and the extent to which various conflict minerals initiatives have been implemented on the ground. Besides a desk- based literature review, sources used include interviews with several industry and civilsociety stakeholders, the authors’ regular attendance of public and non-public meetings related to the various conflict minerals initiatives over the past few years, as well as theauthors’ long-term field research activities in eastern DRC, including specific research visits by the authors and their associates for this study, conducted in March 2014 and encompassing northern Katanga, South Kivu and North Kivu.
PROPERTY RIGHTS AND ARTISANAL DIAMOND DEVELOPMENT (PRADD): FEASIBILITY OF DIRECT MARKETING OF ARTISANAL DIAMONDS FROM LIBERIA AND THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
With Estelle Levin and Ruby Weinberg
Report prepared for TetraTech ARD / USAID (2011)
Report commissioned by the Property Rights and Artisanal Diamond Development (PRADD) Project, of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
The purpose of this research was to ascertain the feasibility and desirability of establishing more direct trading relations between artisanal miners in the Central African Republic (CAR) and Liberia and international buyers—with special attention to the US diamond industry—on the premise that increasing the price achieved by artisanal miners may make them more able and thus likely to formalize their activities.
From conflict to development diamonds: the Kimberley Process, and Africa's artisanal diamond mines
With Koen Vlassenroot
Studia Diplomatica (2009), LXII(2), pp.79–96.
Brief introduction to the topic of Conflict Diamonds, and how the Kimberley Process and its Certification Scheme was designed to tackle this problem. The article then focuses on the role of artisanal diamond mines in African countries, and the unique problems it poses for Kimberley Process certification. The article also underlines the economic importance of this part of the informal economy, and the opportunities for rural economic development that artisanal mining represents.
It was published in Studia Diplomatica, the journal edited at the Egmont Institute, where, together with Koen Vlassenroot, I managed a research project on the challenges of formalising artisanal diamond mining activities. This project was funded by the Belgian Foreign Affairs ministry, in support of the Kimberley Process.
Van conflictdiamant naar ontwikkelingsdiamant: het Kimberley Proces en de artisanale diamantmijnen van Afrika
Wereldbeeld - Tijdschrift voor de Verenigde Naties (2009), 33, 149, 34-39.
Article in Dutch, published in the journal of the Association for the United Nations in Belgium
Minding the mines: resource certification and revision of contracts in the mining industry in Africa
Fatal Transactions (2007)
Position paper, prepared for the Fatal Transactions network, a coalition of NGOs campaigning on issues related to natural resources, corruption, and armed conflict in the Global South. The paper served as an introduction to the 2007 Fatal Transactions conference, held in Brussels.